The study was conducted in four districts of Kobo, Habru, Kalu, and Dawa chefa located in the North Wollo, South Wollo, and Oromia Special Zones of the Eastern Amhara Region, Ethiopia. These districts are well known for the production of sorghum, Mung bean, Haricot bean, and other lowland crops.

Kobo district is situated at 12°09'60.00"N, 39°38'59.99"E, with an altitude of 1,500 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.). The district receives an average annual rainfall and temperature of 617.3 mm and 22.3 °C, respectively. Habru district lies between 11°32'58.00"N, 39°48'58.89"E, at altitudes ranging from 1,150 to 1,825 m.a.s.l. The district experiences a mean annual rainfall of 750–1,000 mm and temperatures ranging from 15 to 29 °C. Kalu district is located at 11°00'00.00"N, 39°83'59.99"E, with altitudes ranging from 1,895 to 1,954 m.a.s.l. The district receives an average annual rainfall of 750–900 mm, and the mean temperature varies between 25 and 35 °C. Dawa chefa district is situated at 10°55'49.30"N, 39°47'47.59"E at an altitude of 1,424 m.a.s.l. It has a mean annual rainfall of 895.2 mm and an average temperature of 26.2 °C (Woreda office of agriculture 2022).

The study districts are characterized by a lowland agro-ecology with short and erratic rainfall patterns, typically extending for not more than three months from late June to early September. Consequently, crop production in these districts is often challenged by low soil fertility and high moisture stress, resulting in frequent crop failures.

A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select participant farmers for the study. In the first stage, three sorghum-producing zones in moisture-deficient areas of the Eastern Amhara Region were purposively selected. In the second stage, four districts representing high sorghum producing districts Kobo, Habru, Kalu, and Dawa Chefa were identified. In the third stage, seven kebeles were selected in consultation with the respective Woreda Offices of Agriculture: Adisalem and Aradom from Kobo, Gorarba from Habru, Arabo from Kalu, and Gerbi, Shekla, and Gur from Dawa Chefa. Finally, farmers with a minimum of 0.25 ha of cultivated land were identified and clustered within each district to facilitate crop management, monitoring, and evaluation.

Host farmers in each kebele were selected in collaboration with agricultural experts and key informants familiar with the local communities. Selection criteria ensured representation across different social segments, including variations in age, gender, and wealth status, to capture a diverse spectrum of farmers. Researchers facilitated timely action plans for technology promotion in collaboration with agricultural experts and other stakeholders, ensuring organized implementation and effective dissemination of improved sorghum technologies.

The dissemination of improved sorghum technologies in the study area involved a series of structured activities, including a planning workshop, package training, mass media, field days, and field visits aimed at enhancing farmers’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and adoption behavior.

Data were collected from a selected sample using a structured data sheet to record both biological and socio-economic information. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools such as focus group discussions, individual interviews, and field observations were used for data collection. Biological data included grain and straw yields, while economic data encompassed market prices of outputs and costs of inputs. In addition, farmers’ preferences and perceptions of the technologies were measured using a five-point Likert scale, and feedback from other stakeholders on the technologies was also recorded.

Yield-related data were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics, while preference rankings and Likert scale responses were evaluated using the Relative Importance Index to capture perceptions. The results were presented through graphs, tables, and narrative descriptions to effectively convey qualitative insights.

The amount of inputs distributed and the total number of project participants are summarized in Table 2 below. During the project period, a total of 1230 kg of seed was distributed. The initial seed served as a revolving seed to reach additional farmers in the area. A farmer-to-farmer seed exchange mechanism was established to improve access to early-maturing sorghum seeds. This system provided a relatively low-cost approach to ensure adequate seed quantity, maintain quality, and deliver seed at the right time and place at an affordable price.

The results presented in Fig. 1 show clear differences in yield performance between the improved sorghum varieties (Girana-1 and Melkam) and the local varieties across the four districts. The mean grain yield of Girana-1 was 4.57 t ha^-1, 3.50 t ha^-1, and 3.65 t ha^-1 at Kobo, Habru, and Dawa Chefa districts, respectively. These yield levels represent substantial improvements over the local varieties, corresponding to yield advantages of 43.45% at Kobo, 27.27% at Habru, and 73.8% at Dawa Chefa under comparable management conditions. This reveals that Girana-1 performs consistently well across varied agro-ecological conditions, particularly in moisture-stressed areas where early-maturing varieties are advantageous.

Similarly, the Melkam variety also showed superior performance, with mean grain yields of 3.98 t ha^-1, 4.80 t ha^-1, 4.15 t ha^-1, and 3.80 t ha^-1 at Kobo, Habru, Kalu, and Dawa Chefa, respectively. Compared to the local varieties, Melkam exhibited even larger yield advantages of 59.2%, 74.54%, 88.63%, and 73.37% across the respective districts. The exceptionally high yield advantage in Kalu (88.63%) suggests that Melkam is particularly well-suited to the environmental conditions of this district, possibly due to better soil moisture availability or improved compatibility with local management practices. These results are consistent with earlier findings indicating that Melkam is one of the high-yielding, stable, and widely adaptable sorghum varieties recommended for dryland areas (Tesfaye et al. 2021; Seyoum et al. 2019).

Although both improved varieties showed high grain yield performance, Melkam showed a relatively lower stalk yield advantage compared to the local variety. This is mainly because Melkam has a shorter plant height, which reduces total biomass yield; however, farmers reported that its stalk is more palatable and easier to utilize as animal feed. This aligns with recent observations that improved varieties often trade off biomass quantity for grain yield but provide better feed quality (Berhanu et al. 2025). The dual-purpose value of sorghum grain for food and stalk for livestock remains an important factor for farmer preference, and improved varieties like Melkam can still be valuable where feed quality is prioritized over bulk biomass.

Overall, the findings indicate that both Girana-1 and Melkam offer substantial yield benefits and agronomic improvements over local varieties. Their consistent performance across locations highlights their potential for wider scaling, contributing to increased food security, resilience to drought, and improved household income in the sorghum-growing areas.

Early-maturing sorghum technologies were previously unfamiliar in the moisture-stressed areas of eastern Amhara due to limited access to improved sorghum varieties and associated production packages. However, this situation has now improved as farmers have begun producing improved sorghum varieties after obtaining seed from research centers and NGOs, along with adequate training on full production practices. Farmers frequently compare the improved varieties with their local counterparts and consistently note advantages such as uniform crop stand, compact and well-filled heads, better tolerance to moisture stress, and other desirable agronomic traits.

The clustering approach used for pre-scaling up sorghum technologies has played an important role in facilitating field observation, improving weed management, reducing wild animal damage, and enhancing disease, insect, and pest control. It has also contributed to the development of stronger market linkages within the production areas. As a result, there is now a high demand for improved sorghum technologies, with farmers seeking seed either by borrowing or purchasing from neighboring farmers.

The involvement of experts and the creation of linkages among key actors, including research centers, agricultural offices, cooperatives, unions, and NGOs, have been instrumental in technology generation, adaptation, demonstration, and promotion. These collaborations have helped introduce new ideas, improve production practices, and ensure farmers’ access to improved early-maturing sorghum seeds. This support enhances production and productivity at the woreda, zonal, regional, and national levels.

Early-maturing sorghum varieties are in high demand locally, nationally, and internationally because they are essential food security crops for rural households. Stakeholders share roles and responsibilities to ensure sustainable production and productivity improvements. The long-term sustainability of the seed supply system depends on coordinated participation through a multi-stakeholder extension approach, strengthening seed production and marketing cooperatives, and reinforcing farmer-to-farmer seed exchange systems within communities.

Farmers expressed strong appreciation for the performance and uniformity of the improved sorghum varieties. Many farmers indicated their willingness to further scale out the technologies through farmer-to-farmer seed exchange. They also reported that early-maturing sorghum varieties are well-suited for intercropping with crops such as mung bean, haricot bean, and various forage species. Some farmers noted that they plan to cultivate additional forage crops to compensate for feed shortages, particularly when adopting the Melkam variety. Melkam was also favored for its short plant height, which enhances its tolerance to wind damage. Both improved varieties were reported to be highly thresh-able and free from health problems known as “qinqn”, making them more convenient for post-harvest handling.

Stakeholders emphasized the need to strengthen market linkages to support the sale of improved seed produced at the community level. They also highlighted the importance of conducting further research on the management of major insect pests and diseases, including fall armyworm, stalk borer, and other emerging threats. Additionally, they recommended that technology promotion efforts be expanded to other sorghum-producing areas in collaboration with local agricultural offices to achieve broader coverage. Food science research was identified as necessary for assessing the food quality attributes of early-maturing sorghum varieties along the value chain. Cooperative organizations were encouraged to actively participate in the establishment and strengthening of seed producer cooperatives to address recurring seed shortages and ensure a sustainable community-based seed supply system.

Fig. 2 illustrates farmers’ perceptions of early-maturing sorghum varieties using the Relative Importance Index (RII). The RII value greater than or equal to 0.5 (closer to 1) indicates a high level of preference for both positive and negative statement parameters, whereas an RII value closer to 0.1 (zero) reflects low perception or low preference for a given attribute. As shown in the figure, the Melkam variety is highly preferred by farmers across most of the evaluated parameters. Girana-1 is also generally preferred, although not to the same extent as Melkam across all traits. Overall, farmers noted that Melkam has a uniform crop stand, is suitable for intercropping, and matures early; however, it has lower stalk yield and is more susceptible to bird damage due to its white seed color and short stalk height. Girana-1, on the other hand, is appreciated for its grain color, desirable grain size, better stalk palatability, and marketability, as well as its suitability as livestock feed. These perceptions highlight the distinct advantages of both varieties and reflect farmers’ practical evaluation of the varieties under their local production conditions.

The results presented in the graph show farmers’ perceptions of the food quality attributes of the Melkam and Girana-1 sorghum varieties based on the Relative Importance Index (RII). Overall, both varieties were considered suitable for a range of traditional food products, but each exhibited different strengths. Melkam received the highest preference for porridge quality for a common household dish. It was also highly rated for injera taste and injera color, reflecting its favorable sensory characteristics in common staple food preparation. In contrast, Girana-1 performed better in attributes related to fermentation and baking, including local beer quality, injera baking quality, and injera lusciousness, suggesting that farmers found this variety more appropriate for products requiring desirable fermentation behavior and good baking performance. Girana-1 also scored highly for injera color and water-holding capacity of flour powder, traits important for dough handling and final product appearance. Although Melkam was slightly less preferred for these fermentation-related traits, it remained valued for its versatility and good taste profile. Overall, the findings indicate that Melkam is particularly preferred for porridge and flavorful injera, while Girana-1 is more suitable for fermented foods and high-quality injera, highlighting the complementary food-use advantages of the two early-maturing sorghum varieties (Figs 3, 4).